OTL 560 Portfolio Project

1. Introduction to site

(See “home/about” pages)

1. Purpose of the site

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1. Linkage to the Eight Mind Frames.

2. My fundamental task is to evaluate the effect of my teaching on students’ learning and achievement.

The ways in which students have success are widely varied. Some students will figure out ways to persevere and succeed when left to their own devices and, for these students, the analysis of their success may or may not provide an instructor with as much usable data. However, for the vast majority of students, the manner in which instruction is provided in class has a profound effect on the students’ retention, enjoyment, and fulfillment.

When attempting to quantify the effectiveness of a given teacher’s instruction, data really needs to be collected to show a student’s starting point and ending point within a grading period. It is also useful to compare and contrast the use of different instructional methods for the purpose of comparing results. This may necessitate tracking over the course of a couple years to analyze the instruction of similar content. If an instructor has multiple sections of the same class then it may be possible to experiment with different presentations of the same content to determine what is most effective for certain students.

1. The success and failure of my students’ learning is about what I do or don’t do. I am a change agent.

While rigidity is rarely a trait to be typically desirable in a teacher, it is important for teachers to be able to set forth an educational plan and stand firmly behind it. Students pick up on whether a teacher believes in what/how they are teaching pretty quickly. Young teachers often experience this explicitly because they have not yet developed their approach and are still experimenting with many aspects of teaching. An important thing to remember about teaching and the classroom environment is that everything that is currently happening is supposed to happen based on the events that have previously transpired. Being able to accept this is important for the teacher because if things aren’t going exactly the way they are supposed to, the responsibility to change falls first on the teacher.

1. I want to talk more about learning than teaching.

One of the main aspects of Hattie’s views on teaching is that the learning must be “visible” to the student. By making learning visible, the students are more capable of understanding how they could further their learning independently. Teachers who think more about the learning that their students do (as opposed to the teaching that they do themselves) will be able to provide more logical explanations to their students and give them more tools to help themselves.

1. Assessment is about my impact.

The best way for a teacher to see if their teaching is effective is to have methods of assessment that evaluate a student’s progress at various points to see their progression. A standard process to follow is performing formative and summative assessments. Formative assessments Show what a student knows before the teacher provides instruction. Following a summative assessment, the theory would be that the difference between the two scores would be the impact of the teacher.

1. I teach through dialogue not monologue.

Depending on the school district, teachers are often part of a team or department. Having a team of teachers available to bounce ideas off or share experiences with is important for a number of reasons. It is increasingly difficult to be a teacher who is left to their own devices. An example of this would be a theater teacher, or a foreign language teacher who essentially runs their own department; teaching all the classes, designing their curriculum, and making all the decisions when things may or may not be going well.

A teacher who has a supportive team to work within will have opportunities to share personal successes and failures. Particularly when a teacher is in their initial professional years having another professional to shadow, bounce ideas off of, or get some advice on how to improve plans. Without these opportunities to get feedback problems can compound themselves and become greater than they ever should have been.

1. I enjoy the challenge and never retreat to “doing my best”.

Everything that is happening right now is supposed to be happening. When things aren’t going well, it is very easy to accept that the results are out of the teacher’s control and say “I don’t know why this isn’t working. I taught the material and the students aren’t learning.” The teacher who is determined to get the most out of every student will look to themselves and decide where they can make adjustments that will help some if not all their students.

1. It is my role to develop positive relationships in class and staffrooms.

Students connect with course content when they relate with the person providing the instruction. If the student doesn’t have a good relationship, now more than ever, the student will not work for the teacher. A lot of the connection students look for is the notion that they are valued on a human level. This is why it is so crucial to find a way to connect with the lowest performing students. In my experience, students who are low performing are rarely only low performing in your class. If you make space for those students to feel necessary they will do something for you.

Developing positive relationships with staff is a totally different thing and is important for different reasons. Being approachable and affable not only makes your personal life more enjoyable at work but you will have more support on a professional level from your peers. For example, having a good attitude will make a teacher more likely to get help from a peer when they need it. In another way, a teacher would like to add an additional afterschool program, but has not had any facetime with their after school program coordinator. The teacher makes an appointment to ask for a class and they have all the skills, materials, and organization to run a class, but the coordinator finds the teacher to be demanding and blustery. Does the teacher get the class? Maybe. If the coordinator came away from the meeting thinking that the teacher made a great impression then they would be more likely to get the teacher set up with the program they are proposing.

1. I inform all about the language of learning.

Teachers are the first model for students about the love of being lifelong learners. Learning is a process and it is the job of the educator to provide students with the experience of the learning process. The best teachers show their students how much they love the process of learning what they are teaching. These favorite teachers that we have all had made learning a clear language and a way of life for their students.

IV. Five Major Dimensions Resources and Insights.

Expert teachers can identify the most important ways in which to represent the subject that they teach.

One of the most important skills for a successful modern teacher to develop is the ability to differentiate instruction based on what a given student may need to find a connection to the material. Two items that may have an impact on how effectively a teacher may be able to differentiate are knowledge base and skill level with application of the content as noted in a 2002 article Stack the Deck in Favor of Your Students: “Teaching effectiveness is dependent upon the interaction between the instructor's subject-matter knowledge and teaching (pedagogical) ability” (Bulger 2002) A teacher with a strong grasp of the content, experience with instructing a broad range of student learners, and control of a versatile set of skills will be more likely to have success differentiating instruction for a student.

Expert teachers are proficient at creating an optimal classroom climate for learning.

Teachers have a responsibility to their students to provide quality instruction for their students but if the students do not feel they are in a comfortable environment that would support not only their successes but their failures as well, then the teachers are missing out on an opportunity to maximize the possibility of student success. A democratic classroom in which students can take more ownership of their learning will greater serve the students. “As children, we start our lives filled with a natural tendency to enthusiastically explore our world and increase our skills. However, as we enter school and each year of learning becomes more and more prescribed, there are fewer choices for students.” (Fretz n.d.)

Expert teachers monitor learning and provide feedback.

Feedback is one of the most important ways in which a teacher can provide for their students. The ability to provide feedback for students often starts with setting expectations and often, these expectations can come in the form of goals. “It will be easy for the students [to] achieve learning goals if they understand those goals” (Bashir 2016) When these goals are understood, giving feedback along the way (both immediate and long term feedback are useful at different times of a project) gives the teacher a firmer understanding of the individual student’s progression and eventually can lead to a more effective level of differentiation.

Expert teachers believe that all students can reach the success criteria.

The most effective way to help all the students under your instruction achieve success is to be realistic when setting goals. Working within the guidelines set by a district or state, and using appropriate differentiation strategies (as well as making use of scaffolding techniques where necessary) a teacher must make choices for their students that are challenging but not so difficult that some students could not ever possibly achieve success. Helping students earn a more worldly awareness of their education, may help them understand how to work towards the success: “Through these activities, students can become aware of what they do not know or understand” (Dolan 2015)

Expert teachers influence surface and deep student outcomes.

In a traditional “old-school” learning environment, students learned facts to answer specific pointed questions, sometimes with less context than necessary to develop a deeper understanding of the material at hand. There are times when some instructors may still favor evaluations such as these but students typically benefit from learning broader concepts first and then refined details following such. “This is where the concept of approaches to learning differs from the concept of learning styles in which all learners are claimed to have their own personal and stable learning style that should be aligned to instruction” (Dolmans 2016)

V. Teacher Collaboration Resources and Strategies

Collaboration in the Music Faculty

In my district, we have five band teachers. While we all work separately, we could not possibly achieve at the level we do without some sense of collaboration. During each concert cycle, we all discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the student musicians in our respective instrument groups before choosing music for performance. Sometimes this means we will specifically select music that will provide a challenge for a certain group of students. Typically in lower grade levels we are careful to press too hard on any one group in hopes of giving student the opportunity to have more immediate success.

Integrating technology

Our district offers “one-to-one” access for students and this extends to the teachers here as well. We all have access to at least one chromebook which leads us to make use of the calendar and keep apps in order to communicate schedules and progress. We otherwise do not have a lot of “traditional tech” but we use a select amount quite a bit. Since we are a small to medium size school system with a lot of high powered programs, facilities use can be quite a struggle and having centralized calendars is a powerful tool.

The Keep app is something that is used for our class time management. If there is something that will be important for all the students to have prepared, the task can be placed in a checklist within the app. This checklist can be shared so that all of us can stay informed about the other teachers’ progress. Another use for this app would be to make sure that announcements are made. It is important to make sure information gets out in person so having a reminder in the keep app can help us make sure to announce concert dates, information for parades in class.

Observation

Observation has two meanings in this sense. A 2021 study notes that “teachers and student teachers experienced great learning benefits from one another. Through co-teaching, working relationships, knowledge, skill sets, and teaching styles were shared” (Thomas 2021) Team teaching or co-teaching is probably the most immersive way for teachers to collaborate. In this style of class management multiple teachers occupy the same space and are essentially working from different sides of the same task. This is a good way for teachers to observe one another and decide what may be working well or not so well. By doing this observation, a teacher could potentially pick up on new ways to problem solve.

Additionally, team teaching gives the teacher at the head of the class an additional set of eyes to make sure that students are not only staying on task, but if a student is struggling and it goes unnoticed, the second teacher could pick up on this detail and bring it up to the head teacher. Following this initial conversation the teachers can come up with a plan to better support this student who is struggling. One of the hardest parts of being a solo teacher is knowing what is going on at all times everywhere in the classroom. Co-teaching is a way to aid with this difficulty

Rare Circumstance

The traditional music class does not have co-teaching. Also, in most circumstances, there is only one music teacher in a school. Because of this, there is not a dearth of information available regarding collaboration between teachers in music departments. “Often, a music teacher is the only music teacher in a school and lacks access to resource colleagues in music with whom to discuss their practice” (Kim 2019) As stated previously, we are lucky to have, in my district, specialized instructors for the various instrument groups. While our instructors are coming from various backgrounds, it would be possible for all or any of us to run a program on our own. It is however, a much stronger program because of our ability to collaborate when we choose to.

VI. Teacher Talk vs. Student Talk Data Collection Reflection

Minute by minute lesson plan (8th grade band)

8:50-9:00 Warm-up

Bb scale (Bb1-Bb2)

9:00-9:10 Anchors Aweigh

Run

9:10-9:35 Pirates of the Caribbean

Mid to end of piece

9:35-9:49 Precision

Start

Warm up (8:50-9:00)

Class begins with students filing in, sitting down in chairs that have been set up prior to class. Students arrive at approximately 8:52. Teacher greets the students. Students assemble instruments and the playing begins at 8:56. The teacher provides feedback after each attempt, speaking to the entire class and to individual students. Bb1 is executed with various types of articulation techniques, each explained thoroughly and with anecdotal speech. Bb2 is attempted, again with more feedback after each attempt. Warm up concludes at 9:07.

Teacher talk: 5 minutes

Student talk: 0 minutes

Anchors Aweigh (9:00-9:10)

This segment of the lesson is starting late and the teacher begins the piece at roughly 9:09 with the direction to “run” the piece as the material is older and should be performed accurately by the ensemble. The teacher stops the piece midway through the first half of the piece to provide feedback to a group of students regarding missed key signature assignments. The feedback turns to a brief discussion on tone development and a second attempt of the piece is begun. The ensemble makes it through the piece and the teacher provides feedback to the group. The instructor requests that the group perform the final 32 measures of the piece one final time and following this, they provide feedback. Work on “Anchors Aweigh” concludes at 9:18

Teacher Talk: 8 minutes

Student Talk: 0 minutes

Pirates of the Caribbean (9:10-9:35)

The teacher had set aside the most time in class to work with this particular piece as it is the most lengthy and has the most demand on the students from a technical standpoint. When the teacher decides to move to the next piece, a few students must reset their seating and a few students need to change instruments. At this point the students are putting away an instrument and taking out/assembling another. While the instructor makes the move to “Pirates” at 9:18, students are not settled in and ready to play until 9:22. Beginning at measure 54, students are mostly playing material that they are not ready to perform, which was the point of allocating extra time for this piece. The instructor stops the group after a few measures and begins discussion on a basic breakdown of the rhythms in these first measures. The groups conception of rhythmic properties seems low, though they are trying to put into performance the suggestions from the instructor. The instructor asks individual students to perform excerpts from the piece to check for understanding. There are 19 students and each student receives a bit of feedback and a second chance to perform. The end of class arrives without attempting the last piece on the docket.

Teacher talk: 13 minutes

Student talk: ~ 2 minutes

Identify the types of questions that allowed less teacher talk and more student talk.

In this particular class, the teacher provided ample feedback opportunities; almost too much. The teacher has an obvious grasp of content but there is almost too much information particularly during the first two segments. The times when feedback was provided was always of the “closed” variety. There wasn’t really an opportunity for students to speak. In band class a lot of the “student talk time” is really the performance of the students on instruments but it can certainly be helpful to pose questions and have some critical thoughts from the students. The teacher, in this case, offered mostly corrections, which is helpful in the moment but sometimes not as permanent.

Determine what encouraged the most student engagement.

The most engagement occurred during the rehearsing of “Anchors Aweigh”. This can likely be attributed to the amount of students who have gained some amount of mastery with this material. Students like to play what they know and it takes a special student to really seek out and attempt new material. Again, in this case, the engagement came from the performance, which is very similar to the “student talk”.

What adjustments could be made to foster greater student engagement?

The teacher talks a lot. There are times when the teacher needs to be speaking and giving direction but band class is about playing. The Warm up section and “Anchors Aweigh” could have had more playing versus how much feedback was given out. Warm-ups are for “warming up” your instrument and embouchure and there was a lot of talking in between playing which can lead to “cool down” which is counterproductive. Anchors Aweigh is a known piece in the class and shouldn’t require so much extra instruction, especially in this case where the main idea was to rehearse another piece. The class got a little “stuck in the mud” because it seemed like the instructor was looking for a level of perfection that 8th grade students might struggle to attain. Also the anecdotal speech (story-telling) seemed to get in the way of moving along the class, having less to do with the content and techniques than the teacher may have thought.

This instructor also really ran out of time and seemed to plan for too much. They also didn’t build any flex time into the schedule. Their plan seemed to expect the students to appear in the class ready to play as soon as the bell rang. They also didn’t prepare for time in between songs.

What data collection systems could teachers set up to better assess teacher and student talk?

The best way for a teacher like this to keep themselves in check is to observe themselves and think about what they are saying and make sure it is necessary and to the point. It is also important to make sure that the feedback is to the level of the student. It doesn’t make sense to give a student musician feedback as if they were able to take the feedback and work with it like a professional. Having video of oneself might help to display when feedback is going over the student’s head.

VII. Student Engagement Resources for Colleagues

Motivation

One of the key factors to a student’s productivity is how intrinsically motivated they are to be productive. “When students are intrinsically motivated to learn they learn more, exhibit better behavior, are happier and aspire to contribute to the betterment of society. Intrinsically motivated learners have a greater sense of well-being and are more engaged in the classroom because they understand the inherent benefit of education” (Froiland 2012) While it is possible for outside forces to create motivation by suggesting artificial end results (prizes, competition) a student who is intrinsically motivated is capable of seeing the value of accomplishing a task at hand or developing a new skill.

While my own classroom experiences may vary greatly from a STEM instructor, as a general rule, intrinsic motivation is most likely to be developed by putting ownership of education into the student’s hands. Some would call this a democratic classroom, often described as being a part of the blended learning process. Giving students the ability to have a choice in what or how they study puts the ball in their court where achievement is concerned. The manner in which the teacher presents these choices is particular to the material and the existing classroom environment. For example, if the teacher is generally lecturing, then allowing students to prepare materials on their own and then lead discussions is a way to move toward a democratic classroom. Other options would be allowing students to have a choice between topics of study that may all satisfy the curriculum content standards or giving options for group work or individual study.

Differentiated instruction

In order for a teacher to have the most success with teaching every student, they must develop pathways for students with different needs to have success, keeping in mind that there should be no concessions regarding the demand of the content. “The use of single-paced lessons delivered through a singular instructional approach disregards the different learning styles and interests present in all classrooms.” (Subban 2006) Students may require anything from a different seating arrangement, a request from a teacher to repeat directions, or frequent breaks. In most districts across the country, there are documented individualized learning plans for any student who needs them.

On this topic, Gardner is the most respected and cited educational philosopher: the “theory of the multiple intelligences is a departure from the view that intelligence is a single, measurable unit” (Gardner 1999) Using all available resources and paying close attention to how and when students succeed are the keys to appropriate providing differentiated instruction.

Persistence

To say that persistence is an often overlooked characteristic of an effective teacher is not quite making the whole point. Some teachers are still of the mind that the lecture occurs and then it is on the student to retain or record the information. However, it becomes more necessary for the teacher to find different ways to provide the same content to the students if the teacher hopes for a high percentage of their students to achieve the standard set forth by the curriculum.

This becomes more complicated with students who are different learners: “Teaching children with challenging behaviors places a premium on teacher persistence, as does teaching children who learn more slowly or have disabilities that require complicated adaptations. Teaching young children can also demand extra teacher persistence, for young children often require an enormous amount of repetition in their learning.”. (Wheatley 2002)

A 2012 publication Increasing Persistence: Research-based Strategies for College Student Success suggests that there are a few key factors to influencing persistence:

“Finances, support, work, family, and community.” (Habley 2012) Depending on the district and the resources at hand, more or less emphasis is placed on the teacher’s persistence. Without adequate resources or familial support for the student, the necessity for the persistence of the educator becomes greater and greater.

VIII. Feedback Resources and Blog/Chat Section

Feedback is an essential part of education. Without specific, timely feedback students miss out on opportunities to either improve on already developing skills/knowledge or get their development off the wrong path. There are times when immediate feedback is most effective, but in other circumstances long term feedback can work as well. Students should also be asked to give feedback. Feedback can be between peers or it could be directed toward the teacher. There are times when it can be possible to alternate the direction of the feedback from teacher to student, to student to teacher.

Peer feedback is useful because it allows the teacher time for observation and, given that the students are performing the feedback with their best effort, then students get advice or constructive criticism from a place they might be more comfortable with. Some would consider the notion that peer feedback may not always be so effective: “However, a number of concerns about peer review have been raised… some students worry about harming interpersonal relationships” (Wu 2021) The same document suggests: “Such problems can be solved by anonymous peer review, which decreases bias and enables students to evaluate others’ work in a non threatening environment”.

A blending of peer and teacher feedback can be useful as well. For example, a teacher gives directions for a new assignment. The students work independently at first and upon finishing the assignment, the students break out into peer feedback. Once the students have received some direction, they can make some edits and then get feedback from the teacher. For the teacher, this may not be so much corrective feedback at this point, but supportive, possibly even congratulatory because the assignment has already completed a round of vetting.

Positive/Supportive feedback can contribute so much to a student’s confidence. If students always receive corrective feedback then they don’t learn to think for themselves or trust their own ideas. “From a motivational perspective, feedback is mainly considered to influence dependent variables like intrinsic motivation, locus of control, self-efficacy, or persistence. For these outcomes, the average effect is low. A possible explanation from motivation theory is that feedback can have negative effects on motivation by reducing the experience of autonomy and self-efficacy when it is controlling, negative and uninformative” (Wisniewski 2020)

Timely, informative feedback is an essential tool for teachers at all levels. Students need the support, corrective, supportive, or otherwise. “...it can be stated that teacher feedback, whether or not combined with peer discussions, improves learning outcomes. However, the largest learning gains occur when peer discussions are immediately followed by teacher feedback.” (Molin 2021) It is important to balance the good with the bad when it comes to feedback so that students get what they need on an educational and emotional level.

IX. Resources, strategies, ideas for ways to assess a lesson's effectiveness from various perspectives

The ways in which a lesson can show its effectiveness often lie in the perspective of the person either programming the lesson, participating in the lesson, or administering the lesson and analyzing results. What appears to be a great lesson on paper might not be as strong as initially planned for a number of reasons.

Teacher/curricular perspective:

A teacher typically is aiming to cover an amount of content within a lesson. If they are not teaching the content, then they are seeking to program activities where the students can use the content in ways that will help them learn more thoroughly and, in a best case scenario, give the students a sense of intrinsic motivation which will lead them to further their understanding through continued interest/study.

The type of content included in a lesson will vary with the teacher’s style and what their state recommends to include. The administration of standardized testing may also have an effect on what is programmed within a lesson. In Massachusetts for example, STEM teachers are required to cover an amount of content that will be evaluated on the MCAS. STAR testing also takes place on a national level, however the state-administered exams are based around materials confined to the State Curriculum Frameworks, a document which dictates the types of learning students should be able to complete at a certain age.

While a lesson may be full of content which satisfies the requirements of standardized testing or state-mandated curriculum, there is a point where content for the sake of content may start to seem akin to “teaching to the test”. It has become a common belief that “externally managed standardized tests—are not well correlated with learning. These tests cannot measure all that students learn”. (Phelps 2016)

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Students would evaluate the effectiveness of a lesson using different criteria. Some students will certainly follow exactly what the teacher requires them to do and these students will often find ways for themselves to achieve at a high level regardless of the content. Other students need to know what and why when it comes to the lesson plan. They need to know what the goal of the lesson is and why it is important for them to achieve an amount of success. For students like this, a real world application of the knowledge is crucial. If this connection is difficult for the student to make then it is not likely to get the seal of approval from a number of students.

Evaluating lesson effectiveness is also possible from a more analytical approach using summative and formative assessments. Formative assessment helps the students and teacher know what amount of knowledge the student has before any teaching has occurred. Following the formative assessment, the teacher goes through the process of teaching content, providing feedback, and giving students the opportunity to use the knowledge with activities. The summative assessment comes next after the teaching and learning process is complete. This summative assessment is a great indicator for the lesson’s effectiveness.

The following links contain numerous techniques to form assessments and evaluate student learning:

Columbia University Resources for Assessing Student Learning

DePaul Teaching Commons Teaching Effectiveness

Cornell Teaching Resources Measuring Student Learning

LINCS Effective Lesson Planning

Resources:

Bashir, M., Kabir, R. Rahman, I. (2016) The Value and Effectiveness of Feedback in Improving Students’ Learning and Professionalizing Teaching in Higher Education. Journal of education and practice. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1105282.pdf

Bulger, S. M., Mohr, D. J., Walls, R. T. (2002) Stack the Deck in Favor of Your Students by Using the Four Aces of Effective Teaching. Journal of Effective Teaching. Vol. 5, No. 2, 2002. https://uncw.edu/jet/articles/bulger/

Dolan, E. L., & Collins, J. P. (2015). We must teach more effectively: here are four ways to get started. Molecular biology of the cell, 26(12), 2151–2155. https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.E13-11-0675

Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Loyens, S. M. M., Marcq, H., & Gijbels, D. (2016). Deep and surface learning in problem-based learning: a review of the literature. Advances in health sciences education : theory and practice, 21(5), 1087–1112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-015-9645-6

Fretz, J. R. (ND) Creating Optimal Learning Environments through Invitational Education: An Alternative to Control Oriented School Reform. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practice. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1163007.pdf

Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., Hirchert, T., (2012) Intrinsic Motivation to Learn: The Nexus between Psychological Health and Academic Success. University of Northern Colorado Contemporary School Psychology, 2012, Vol. 16. https://www.casponline.org/pdfs/pdfs/intrinsic_motivation.pdf

Gardner, H. (1999). The Disciplined Mind: What all Students Should Understand. New York:

Simon and Schuster.

Habley, W. R., Bloom, J. L., Robbins, S. (2012) Increasing Persistence: Research-based Strategies for College Student Success. Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprint

Kim, J. (2019). Implementing a Co-Teaching Model in Music Student Teaching: A Literature Review. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 38(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123319843169

Molin, F., Haelermans, C., Cabus, S., Groot, W. (2021) Do feedback strategies improve students’ learning gain?-Results of a randomized experiment using polling technology in physics classrooms. Computers & Education. Volume 175, December 2021, 104339. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131521002165

Phelps, R.P. (2016, January). Teaching to the test: A very large red herring.

Nonpartisan Education Review/Essays, 12(1). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED570879.pdf

Subban, P. (2006)Differentiated instruction: A research basis. International Education Journal. http://iej.com.au

Thomas, A. Z. (2021) "An exploration of team teaching in the school band setting. MSU Graduate Theses. 3697. https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/theses/3697

Wheatley, Karl F. (2002) Teacher Persistence: A Crucial Disposition, with Implications for Teacher Education, Essays in Education: Vol. 3 , Article 1. https://openriver.winona.edu/eie/vol3/iss1/1

Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., Hattie, J. (2019) The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research. Sec. Educational Psychology Front. Psychol. Volume 10 - 2019. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087/full

Wu, Y., Schunn, C. D. (2021) The Effects of Providing and Receiving Peer Feedback on Writing Performance and Learning of Secondary School Students. American Educational Research Journal Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 492–526. https://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schunn/papers/Wu-Schunn-AERj2021-learning.pdf